4.4 Organizational and Individual Factors
While interoperability challenges are common, they reflect a set of barriers to knowledge sharing which are predominantly technical in nature. However, non-technical factors such as the values and norms of the coordinating agencies and the individuals within them will also strongly influence the success of knowledge-sharing efforts. These factors influence whether an agency or individual will see sharing knowledge as beneficial or detrimental, and consequently impact if, how, and with whom they are willing to share information. In the following section we will describe how these factors at both the agency level and the individual level can impact willingness to share knowledge.
At the organizational level, sharing knowledge is often incentivized by a clear and pressing problem which makes coordination between the agencies necessary.62 Sharing knowledge may also occur as a response to pressures from internal policy, super-ordinated organizations, or the public. Once this necessity or pressure is established, organizations may view sharing knowledge as helpful if it enhances the quality and quantity and data and information available. This enhanced data, in turn, can help improve decision-making while reducing redundancy in data collection efforts.63 Coordinating knowledge may also help agencies make plans at larger scales, which can improve the efficacy of management actions.64
While there are many potential motivations for agencies to share knowledge, there are also common sets of concerns regarding data-sharing processes or outcomes. Specifically, some organizations may be uncertain about if, or how, to share their data. These situations can arise if the agency lacks experience with identifying opportunities to share data, or if there is ambiguity about whether the agency has legal or political authority to share information.61 Concerns related to capacity are also common, as organization must allocate their limited resources and staff time towards processing and publishing data, providing training in data sharing mechanisms and policies, and overcoming interoperability challenges.63 If agencies lack the willpower to share, or if sharing is not mandated, other agency initiatives may be seen as more important to devote agency resources towards.64
Concerns related to retaining control over information are also common barriers to knowledge sharing between agencies. Maintaining control over data may be especially important if there are privacy or national security implications should the data be misused.64 Likewise, sharing data could cause concerns over data misinterpretation, especially if there is a lack of trust between the data-sharing agencies.61 In some situations, agencies may view information as a source of power and authority, which in turn encourages that agency to maintain strict control over their data. Sharing data may be viewed by these agencies as having negative political ramifications, hurting the agency’s autonomy or self-interest, or reducing their competitiveness.60,63,64
While many decisions regarding information sharing are made at the organizational level, the implementation of these decisions is affected by the individuals within the agency who are directly or indirectly responsible for knowledge sharing.Even when an agency sets the goal of coordinating knowledge, knowledge may not be shared if the individuals within the agency do not comply. In contrasting situations, where agencies do not intend to share knowledge, knowledge sharing may still occur if an entrepreneurial individual within the organization takes it upon themselves to do so.
Overall, for coordination of knowledge to occur, individuals within the organization must have the motivation to share knowledge. These individuals are motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. For example, an individual may be self-motivated to share knowledge because it helps them build a relationship or establish trust with a colleague. The individual might also have a personal investment in the problem being addressed through the coordination efforts and be eager to assist by sharing information. Extrinsically motivated individuals may feel compelled to share knowledge because it is mandated by organizational policy or their superiors, or they feel pressure from social norms to do so.63
In contrast, barriers at the individual level can impede or prevent knowledge sharing efforts. One commonly occurring barrier is related to an individual’s capacity to devote time and energy to knowledge sharing activities, as well as their access to the mechanisms needed to share. Additionally, an individual’s perceptions about the personal-level effects of knowledge sharing may prevent sharing. For example, some individuals may be disinclined to share knowledge if they feel social pressure from their superiors or peers to devote resources towards other priorities.63 Individual may also avoid sharing knowledge if they have a personal conflict with the knowledge recipient or are competing for professional recognition. Lastly, if an individual holds the viewpoint that their knowledge is a form of property or a mechanism for retaining power, they may be motivated to hoard information to protect their status or identity.60